Skip to content
IJBAS International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences E-ISSN 2227-5053

Gut Microbiota Profiles in Common Non-Communicable Diseases - A Narrative Review

Abstract

Purpose: The gastrointestinal tract in humans is composed of various microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, archaea, protozoa, and fungi. The interactions between gut and the microorganisms are crucial for the processes such as digestion, nutrient absorption, immune function, and metabolic regulation. Altered gut microbiota called dysbiosis, has been linked to the development and progression of various non-communicable diseases. This review has been aimed to address the alterations of gut microbiota in various non-communicable diseases.

Methods: A thorough literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar between January 2015 and December 2024 to identify studies examining the impact of gut microbiota in metabolic diseases. The search utilized keywords such as gut microbiota, gut dysbiosis, and altered microbiota in non-communicable diseases. The studies included were full research articles and studies published in English. In this comprehensive review, we explored the complex interplay between the gut microbiota and human health, focusing on its role in common metabolic disorders such as obesity, metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, autoimmune diseases, mental disorders, and cancer. Studies involving animal models, and cell lines and reviews were excluded.

Conclusions: The altered gut microbiota is involved in the initiation and progression of various non-communicable diseases. The dysbiosis not only aggravates the disease, but also causes refractoriness to the management of the disease. Hence, it is better to identify the causes of dysbiosis to control the harmful bacteria and to bring relief to the individuals with common con-communicable diseases.

Authors and Affiliations

About this article

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14419/cshmpj82
Received
2026-01-14
Accepted
2026-02-28
Published
2026-03-02
Views
669
Downloads
283
Download PDF

Keywords

  • Non-Communicable Diseases
  • Gut Microbiota
  • Gut Dysbiosis
  • Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
  • Obesity

References

[1] Burden of NCDs and their risk factors in India. Available at-‎http://www.searo.who.int/india/topics/ ‎noncommunicable_diseases/ncd_situation_global_report_ncds_2014.pdf.

[2] Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G. A. D., Gasbarrini, A., & ‎Mele, M. C. (2019). What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ‎ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms, 7(1), 14.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7010014.

[3] Ma, Z. F., & Lee, Y. Y. (2025). The Role of the Gut Microbiota in Health, Diet, and Disease ‎with a Focus on Obesity. Foods, 14(3), 492.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14030492.

[4] Zhao, M. A., Chu, J., Feng, S., Guo, C., Xue, B., He, K., & Li, L. (2023). Immunological ‎mechanisms of inflammatory diseases caused by gut mi-crobiota dysbiosis: A review. ‎Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 164, 114985.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114985.

[5] Hu, C., & Shen, H. (2024). Microbes in Health and Disease: Human Gut Microbiota. Applied ‎Sciences, 14(23), 11354.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311354.

View more references (57)

[6] Plamada, D., & Vodnar, D. C. (2021). Polyphenols—Gut microbiota interrelationship: A ‎transition to a new generation of prebiotics. Nutrients, 14(1), 137.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010137.

[7] Yanni, A. E., Mitropoulou, G., Prapa, I., Agrogiannis, G., Kostomitsopoulos, N., Bezirtzoglou, ‎E., et al. (2020). Functional modulation of gut micro-biota in diabetic rats following dietary ‎intervention with pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.). Metabolism Open, 7, 100040.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metop.2020.100040.

[8] Van Hul, M., Cani, P. D., Petitfils, C., De Vos, W. M., Tilg, H., & El-Omar, E. M. (2024). ‎What defines a healthy gut microbiome? Gut, 73(11), 1893-1908.‎ https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2024-333378.

[9] Rehner, J., Molano, L. A. G., Christodoulou, C., Holländer, S., Förster, M. O., Keller, V., et al. ‎‎(2025). Examining spatial microbiome variations across gastrointestinal tract regions in ‎obesity. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 25423.‎ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10931-0.

[10] Ogobuiro, I., Gonzales, J., Shumway, K. R., Tuma, F. Physiology, Gastrointestinal. 2023 Apr ‎‎8. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: ‎‎30725788.‎

[11] Rajasekaran, J. J., Krishnamurthy, H. K., Bosco, J., Jayaraman, V., Krishna, K., Wang, T., & ‎Bei, K. (2024). Oral microbiome: a review of its impact on oral and systemic health. ‎Microorganisms, 12(9), 1797.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12091797.

[12] Barchi, A., Massimino, L., Mandarino, F. V., Vespa, E., Sinagra, E., Almolla, O., et al. (2024). ‎Microbiota profiling in esophageal diseases: Novel insights into molecular staining and ‎clinical outcomes. Computational and structural biotechnology journal, 23, 626-637. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csbj.2023.12.026.

[13] Kennedy, M. S., & Chang, E. B. (2020). The microbiome: Composition and locations. ‎Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, 176, 1–42.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.08.013.

[14] Kastl, A. J., Jr., Terry, N. A., Wu, G. D., & Albenberg, L. G. (2020). The structure and function ‎of the human small intestinal microbiota: Current understanding and future directions. ‎Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 9(1), 33–45.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmgh.2019.07.006.

[15] Chavoya-Guardado, M. A., Vasquez-Garibay, E. M., Ruiz-Quezada, S. L., Ramírez-Cordero, ‎M. I., Larrosa-Haro, A., Castro-Albarran, J. (2022). Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and ‎Actinobacteria in Human Milk and Maternal Adiposity. Nutrients, 14(14), 2887.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142887.

[16] Jensen, B. A. H., Heyndrickx, M., Jonkers, D., Mackie, A., Millet, S., Naghibi, M., et al. ‎‎(2023). Small intestine vs. colon ecology and physiology: Why it matters in probiotic ‎administration. Cell Reports Medicine, 4(9).‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101190.

[17] Sasso, J. M., Ammar, R. M., Tenchov, R., Lemmel, S., Kelber, O., Grieswelle, M., & Zhou, Q. ‎A. (2023). Gut microbiome–brain alliance: a land-scape view into mental and ‎gastrointestinal health and disorders. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 14(10), 1717-1763.‎ https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00127.

[18] Shalon, D., Culver, R. N., Grembi, J. A., Folz, J., Treit, P. V., Shi, H., et al. (2023). Profiling ‎the human intestinal environment under physiological conditions. Nature, 617(7961), 581–‎‎591.‎ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05989-7.

[19] Fusco, W., Lorenzo, M. B., Cintoni, M., Porcari, S., Rinninella, E., Kaitsas, F. et al. (2023). ‎Short-chain fatty-acid-producing bacteria: key compo-nents of the human gut microbiota. ‎Nutrients, 15(9), 2211.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15092211.

[20] Shen, Y., Fan, N., Ma, S. X., Cheng, X., Yang, X., & Wang, G. (2025). Gut microbiota ‎dysbiosis: pathogenesis, diseases, prevention, and therapy. MedComm, 6(5), e70168. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.70168.

[21] Pérez-Reytor, D., Puebla, C., Karahanian, E., & García, K. (2021). Use of short-chain fatty ‎acids for the recovery of the intestinal epithelial barrier affected by bacterial toxins. ‎Frontiers in physiology, 12, 650313.‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.650313.

[22] Kang, G. G., Trevaskis, N. L., Murphy, A. J., & Febbraio, M. A. (2022). Diet-induced gut ‎dysbiosis and inflammation: Key drivers of obesity-driven NASH. iScience, 26(1), 105905. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105905.

[23] Du, W., Zou, Z. P., Ye, B. C., & Zhou, Y. (2025). Gut microbiota and associated metabolites: ‎key players in high-fat diet-induced chronic diseases. Gut Microbes, 17(1), 2494703.‎ https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2025.2494703.

[24] Khavandegar, A., Heidarzadeh, A., Angoorani, P., Hasani-Ranjbar, S., Ejtahed, H. S., Larijani, ‎B., & Qorbani, M. (2024). Adherence to the Mediter-ranean diet can beneficially affect the ‎gut microbiota composition: a systematic review. BMC Medical Genomics, 17(1), 91.‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/s12920-024-01861-3.

[25] Kesavelu, D., & Jog, P. (2023). Current understanding of antibiotic-associated dysbiosis and ‎approaches for its management. Therapeutic advances in infectious disease, 10, ‎‎20499361231154443.‎ https://doi.org/10.1177/20499361231154443.

[26] Hoseini, R., Rahim, H. A., Saifalddin, D. L., Kareem, D. A., & Fatah, A. M. (2025). Exercise ‎intensity-mediated regulation of gut epithelial cells and immune function in gut microbiota ‎dysbiosis. Journal of Translational Medicine, 24, 10.‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-025-07492-1.

[27] Tofani, G. S., Leigh, S. J., Gheorghe, C. E., Bastiaanssen, T. F., Wilmes, L., Sen, P., et al. ‎‎(2025). Gut microbiota regulates stress responsivity via the circadian system. Cell ‎metabolism, 37(1), 138-153.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2024.10.003.

[28] Rusch, J. A., Layden, B. T., & Dugas, L. R. (2023). Signalling cognition: the gut microbiota ‎and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Frontiers in en-docrinology, 14, 1130689.‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1130689.

[29] Zhang, Q., Liu, Y., Li, Y., Bai, G., Pang, J., Wu, M., et al. (2025). Implications of gut ‎microbiota-mediated epigenetic modifications in intestinal dis-eases. Gut Microbes, 17(1), ‎‎2508426.‎ https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2025.2508426.

[30] Schoultz, I., Claesson, M. J., Dominguez‐Bello, M. G., Fåk Hållenius, F., Konturek, P., ‎Korpela, K., et al. (2025). Gut microbiota development across the lifespan: Disease links ‎and health‐promoting interventions. Journal of internal medicine, 297(6), 560-583. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.20089.

[31] Mariat, D., Firmesse, O., Levenez, F., Guimarăes, V., Sokol, H., Doré, J., et al. (2009). The ‎Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio of the human microbiota changes with age. BMC ‎Microbiology, 9, 123.‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-9-123.

[32] Gyriki, D., Nikolaidis, C. G., Bezirtzoglou, E., Voidarou, C., Stavropoulou, E., & Tsigalou, C. ‎‎(2025). The gut microbiota and aging: interactions, implications, and interventions. ‎Frontiers in aging, 6, 1452917.‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2025.1452917.

[33] Zheng, Z., Hu, Y., Tang, J., Xu, W., Zhu, W., & Zhang, W. (2023). The implication of gut ‎microbiota in recovery from gastrointestinal surgery. Frontiers in cellular and infection ‎microbiology, 13, 1110787. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1110787.

[34] Suga, D., Mizutani, H., Fukui, S., Kobayashi, M., Shimada, Y., Nakazawa, Y., et al. (2022). ‎The gut microbiota composition in patients with right- and left-sided colorectal cancer and ‎after curative colectomy, as analyzed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. BMC ‎Gastroenterology, 22(1), 313.‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/s12876-022-02382-y.

[35] Segal, J. P., Oke, S., Hold, G. L., Clark, S. K., Faiz, O. D., & Hart, A. L. (2018). Systematic ‎review: Ileoanal pouch microbiota in health and disease. Alimentary Pharmacology & ‎Therapeutics, 47(4), 466–477.‎ https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.14454.

[36] Shi, F., Liu, G., Lin, Y., Guo, C. L., Han, J., Chu, E. S. H., et al. (2023). Altered gut ‎microbiome composition by appendectomy contributes to colo-rectal cancer. Oncogene, ‎‎42(7), 530–540.‎ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41388-022-02569-3.

[37] Van Hul, M., & Cani, P. D. (2026). From microbiome to metabolism: Bridging a two-decade ‎translational gap. Cell metabolism, 38(1), 14-32.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2025.10.011.

[38] Cunningham, A. L., Stephens, J. W., & Harris, D. A. (2021). Gut microbiota influence in type ‎‎2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Gut pathogens, 13(1), 50. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/s13099-021-00446-0.

[39] Wang, C., Ge, F., Ge, F., Xu, Z., & Jiang, J. (2025). Harnessing stem cell therapeutics in LPS-‎induced animal models: mechanisms, efficacies, and future directions. Stem Cell Research ‎& Therapy, 16(1), 176.‎ https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-025-04290-w.

[40] Skinner, A. G., Malik, A., Siddiqui, M. R., Singh, V., & Akhtar, S. (2025). Inulin Protects ‎Caco‐2 Cells against Lipopolysaccharide‐induced Epithe-lial Barrier Dysfunction. Food ‎Science & Nutrition, 13(4), e70046. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.70046.

[41] Yu, X., Li, M., & Li, H. (2025). The role of gut dysbiosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in ‎type 2 diabetes: Insights on pathogenesis, intervention and future perspective. Biomedicine ‎& Pharmacotherapy, 193, 118846. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2025.118846.

[42] De Vos, W. M., Tilg, H., Van Hul, M., & Cani, P. D. (2022). Gut microbiome and health: ‎mechanistic insights. Gut, 71(5), 1020-1032.‎ https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2021-326789.

[43] Noor, J., Chaudhry, A., Batool, S., Noor, R., & Fatima, G. (2023). Exploring the impact of the ‎gut microbiome on obesity and weight loss: a review article. Cureus, 15(6), e40948. ‎ https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.40948.

[44] Zhang, K., Zhang, Q., Qiu, H., Ma, Y., Hou, N., Zhang, J., et al. (2024). The complex link ‎between the gut microbiome and obesity-associated meta-bolic disorders: Mechanisms and ‎therapeutic opportunities. Heliyon, 10(17). ‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37609.

[45] Kilic, E., & Basaran, P. (2025). Dietary Fatty Acids Modulate Gut Microbiota-Derived ‎Trimethylamine-N-Oxide: Potential Mechanisms and Future Perspective. Nutrients, 17(23), ‎‎3787. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17233787.

[46] Trøseid, M., Andersen, G. Ø., Broch, K., & Hov, J. R. (2020). The gut microbiome in coronary ‎artery disease and heart failure: Current knowledge and future directions. EBioMedicine, ‎‎52, 102649.‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102649.

[47] Avram, A. C., Craciun, M. L., Pah, A. M., Buleu, F., Cotet, I. G., Mateescu, D. M., et al. ‎‎(2025). Association Between Gut Microbiome Alterations and Hypertension-Related ‎Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Microbiology ‎Research, 16(11), 244.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16110244.

[48] Sun, M., Lu, F., Yu, D., Wang, Y., Chen, P., & Liu, S. (2014). Respiratory diseases and gut ‎microbiota: relevance, pathogenesis, and treatment. Front Microbiol, 15, 1358597.‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1358597.

[49] Ramírez-Mejía, M. M., Ponciano-Rodríguez, G., & Méndez-Sánchez, N. (2025). Implications ‎of the liver-gut axis in liver disease: from mechanisms to therapeutic targets. Archives of ‎Medical Research, 56(8), 103335. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2025.103335.

[50] He, X., Hu, M., Xu, Y., Xia, F., Tan, Y., Wang, Y, et al. (2025). The gut–brain axis underlying ‎hepatic encephalopathy in liver cirrhosis. Nature medicine, 31(2), 627-638. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03405-9.

[51] Ren, G., Bai, C., Yi, S., Cong, Q., & Zhu, Y. (2024). Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for ‎MAFLD targeting TLR4 signaling pathways. Jour-nal of Innate Immunity, 16(1), 45-55. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1159/000535524.

[52] Shen, S., Liu, Y., Wang, N., Huang, Z., & Deng, G. (2025). The role of microbiota in ‎nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: mechanism of action and treatment strategy. Frontiers in ‎Microbiology, 16, 1621583. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1621583.

[53] Lopez, L. R., Bleich, R. M., & Arthur, J. C. (2021). Microbiota effects on carcinogenesis: ‎initiation, promotion, and progression. Annual review of medicine, 72(1), 243-261. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-080719-091604.

[54] Yao, Y., Zhu, Y., Chen, K., Chen, J., Li, Y., Li, D., & Wei, P. (2026). Microbiota in cancer: ‎current understandings and future perspectives. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, ‎‎11(1), 39. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-025-02335-3.

[55] Chang, S. H., & Choi, Y. (2023). Gut dysbiosis in autoimmune diseases: Association with ‎mortality. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 13, 1157918. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1157918.

[56] Kumar, A., Pramanik, J., Goyal, N., Chauhan, D., Sivamaruthi, B. S., Prajapati, B. G., & ‎Chaiyasut, C. (2023). Gut microbiota in anxiety and depres-sion: unveiling the relationships ‎and management options. Pharmaceuticals, 16(4), 565. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/ph16040565.

[57] Ataei, P., Kalantari, H., Bodnar, T. S., & Turner, R. J. (2025). The gut–brain connection: ‎microbes’ influence on mental health and psychological dis-orders. Frontiers in ‎Microbiomes, 4, 1701608. ‎ https://doi.org/10.3389/frmbi.2025.1701608.

[58] Singh, S., & Rastogi, M. (2024). Prebiotics and probiotics: An overview on mechanism of ‎action and therapeutic applications. SALT Journal of Sci-entific Research in Healthcare, 10–‎‎16.‎ https://doi.org/10.56735/saltjsrh.ms2404011016.

[59] Ji, J., Jin, W., Liu, S. J., Jiao, Z., & Li, X. (2023). Probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics in ‎health and disease. MedComm, 4(6), e420. ‎ https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.420.

[60] de Sequeira C. L. M., Hengstberger C., Enck P., Mack I. (2022). Effect of probiotics on ‎psychiatric symptoms and central nervous system functions in human health and disease: a ‎systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 14, 621.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030621.

[61] Al-Habsi, N., Al-Khalili, M., Haque, S. A., Elias, M., Olqi, N. A., & Al Uraimi, T. (2024). ‎Health benefits of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics. Nutrients, 16(22), ‎‎3955.‎ https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16223955.

[62] Yang, S. Y., Han, S. M., Lee, J. Y., Kim, K. S., Lee, J. E., & Lee, D. W. (2025). Advancing gut ‎microbiome research: the shift from metagenomics to multi-omics and future perspectives. ‎Journal of microbiology and biotechnology, 35, e2412001.‎ https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2412.12001.


How to Cite

Sowmiya, T., Bhaskar, E., Gayathri, V., Mohanalakshmi, P., & Silambanan, S. (2026). Gut Microbiota Profiles in Common Non-Communicable Diseases - A Narrative Review. International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 15(2), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.14419/cshmpj82

Related Articles