Agricultural Modernization and Internal Migration in ‎Turkey, 1950-1980: A World Systems Analysis of ‎International Policy Interventions

  • Authors

    • Mehmet Halid Celiktas PhD Student, Sakarya University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Sociology, Sakarya/Türkiye
    • Mustafa Özveren Lecturer, Gebze Technical University, Turkiye
    • yavuz Selim balcioglu Assoc. Prof. Dr., Doğuş University, Turkiye
    • Umit Bayraktar PhD Student, Gebze Technical University, Turkiye
    https://doi.org/10.14419/afd0d021

    Received date: December 2, 2025

    Accepted date: December 7, 2025

    Published date: December 13, 2025

  • Internal Migration; World Systems Theory; Truman Doctrine; Marshall Aid; International Conjuncture‎.

  • Abstract

    This study examines how international developments between 1950 and 1980 fundamentally shaped internal migration dy-‎dynamics in Turkey through the systematic restructuring of rural economic organization. While migration literature typicallyphasizes domestic factors such as agricultural mechanization, land fragmentation, rapid population growth, and regional ine-‎qualities, this research shows that these internal dynamics emerged from Turkey’s structured integration into the global capitalist system through coordinated international policy interventions. Using Immanuel Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory as ‎the analytical framework, the study illustrates how the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, NATO membership, European labor ‎migration, import substitution industrialization, the petroleum crises, the Cyprus Peace Operation, and the January 24 economic-‎ic decisions collectively created institutional arrangements that transformed Turkish agriculture and generated large-scale ru-‎rural-to-urban migration. The research employs a mixed-methods design combining qualitative historical analysis of the 1950–‎‎1980 period with quantitative examination of agricultural transformation indicators from 1961–1980. Primary sources include ‎declassified Foreign Relations of the United States documents that reveal how American policymakers conceptualized Turkish ‎development, while quantitative data from the Food and Agriculture Organization capture shifts in fertilizer use, land distribution, and livestock composition. This temporal structure reflects both data availability and the historical sequence in which international interventions of the 1950s produced measurable agricultural outcomes in later decades. Quantitative findings indicate dramatic agricultural restructuring during 1961–1980. Fertilizer consumption increased nearly tenfold from seventy-five ‎thousand metric tons to more than eight hundred thousand tons, demonstrating capital intensification that reduced labor ‎needs. Arable land grew by eleven percent while permanent meadows and pastures declined twelve percent, showing the conversion of common grazing areas into private croplands that eroded livelihood options for smallholders and landless house-‎holds. Livestock composition also shifted: cattle rose by twenty-six percent and sheep by thirty-three percent, whereas goats declined ‎by twenty-three percent, reflecting policy biases against traditional extensive systems. These structural transformations reduced ‎rural employment while expanding agricultural production for domestic and export markets‎.

  • References

    1. Acar, E. (2023). 19601965 döneminde Türkiye’den Almanya’ya işçi göçleri. TroyAcademy International Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 3869. https://doi.org/10.31454/troyacademy.1215332.
    2. Apan, A. (2022.). Türkiye’de iç göçün merkez–çevre teorisi kapsamında neden ve sonuçlarına dair bir analiz. Türkiye İstatistik Dergisi.
    3. Ay, İ. C. (2021), Marshall “Yardımları”: Türkiye’nin Dışa Bağımlılık Sürecine Etkileri. Biga İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(1), s. 5364.
    4. Ayata, A., & Karataş, H. (2023). IMMANUEL WALLERSTEİN’İN DÜNYASİSTEMLERİ TEORİSİ BAĞLAMINDA GÖÇ OLGUSU. Akademik Hassasiyetler, 10(21), 381399. https://doi.org/10.58884/akademikhassasiyetler.1256931. https://doi.org/10.58884/akademik-hassasiyetler.1256931.
    5. Babayiğit Sunay, E. (2023). The Process of Change in the Understanding of Planning in Turkey by Periods. BİLTÜRK Ekonomi ve İlişkili Çalışmalar Dergisi, 5(3), 167186. https://doi.org/10.47103/bilturk.1286747.
    6. Bartram, D., Poros, M. V., & Monforte, P. (2017). Göç Meselesinde Temel Kavramlar, çev. Itır Ağabeyoğlu Tuncay), Ankara: Hece Yayınları.
    7. Başel, H. (2010). İÇ GÖÇÜN SONUÇLARI VE İŞGÜCÜNE ETKİLERİ. Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları Dergisi(51), 287321.
    8. Bostan, A. (2017). Türkiye’de iç göçlerin toplumsal yapıda neden olduğu değişimler. Coğrafya Dergisi, 35, 116.
    9. Çelik, F. (2005). İç göçler: Teorik bir analiz. Ç.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14(2), 167184.
    10. Çolak, O. (2019). Bursa ili örneğinde iç göç hareketlerinde istihdama duyarlılık (Yüksek lisans tezi). Trakya Üniversitesi.
    11. Danış, D., Zırh, B. C., Özdal, P. A., & Çoban, F. (2021). Almanya Türkiye arasındaki işgücü göçünün altmışıncı yılı üzerine bir değerlendirme: “İyi ki buradayız!” [Report No. 7]. Göç Araştırmaları Derneği (GAR).
    12. Dücan, E. (2016). Türkiye’de İç Göçün SosyoEkonomik Nedenlerinin Bölgesel Analizi. International Journal of Economic & Social Research, 12(2).
    13. Fay, S. B. (1989), The Marshall Plan. Current History, 88(534), s. 3031, 5152. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.1989.88.534.30.
    14. FRUS. (1947a), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, The Near East and Africa, VOL. V, The Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Smith) to the Secretary of State, 761.67/1847, January 8, 1947.
    15. FRUS. (1947b), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, The Near East and Africa, VOL. V, The Secretary of State to the Embassy in Turkey, 867.50A/11047, January 10, 1947.
    16. FRUS. (1948), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Eastern Europe; The Soviet Union, VOL. IV, Memorandum by the Coordinator for Aid to Greece and Turkey (McGhee) to the Under Secretary of State (Lovett). 868.20/83048, August 30, 1948.
    17. İçduygu, A., & Sirkeci, İ. (1999). Cumhuriyet dönemi Türkiye’sinde göç hareketleri. 75 yılda köylerden şehirlere, 249268. Tarih Vakfı Yayınları. İstanbul.
    18. Güreşçi, E. (2012). Türkiye’nin köyden kente göç sorunu. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Elektronik Dergisi, 6, 4155.
    19. Keleş, R. (2002). Kentleşme politikası. İmge Kitabevi.
    20. Keyder, Ç. (2000). Türkiye’de devlet ve sınıflar. İletişim Yayınları.
    21. Koç, Y. (2010). 30. yıldönümünde 12 Eylül darbesi ve işçi sınıfı. Mülkiye Dergisi, 34(268), 4359.
    22. Koenig, L. W. (1969), The Truman Doctrine and NATO. Current History, 57(335), s. 1823. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.1969.57.335.18.
    23. Korkmaz Bingöl, F. (2014). Türkiye’de iç göç hareketlerinin istihdam ve işgücü piyasalarına etkileri. Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(4), 122.
    24. Kunz, D. B. (1997), The Marshall Plan Reconsidered: A Complex of Motives. Foreign Affairs, 76(39), s. 162170.
    25. Linklater, A. (2013). Marxism and critical theory. In Theories of International Relations (4th ed., p. 172). Palgrave Macmillan.
    26. McDowall, D. (2004). Modern Kürt Tarihi. Ankara: Doruk Yayınları.
    27. Mirekoç. (2009). Türkiye’den yurtdışına yönelen göç hareketleri üzerine brifing (No. 2). Koç Üniversitesi Göç Araştırmaları Programı.
    28. Özdemir, H. (2012). Türkiye’de İç Göçler Üzerine Genel Bir Değerlendirme. Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 30(11), 118.
    29. Özdemir, Ü., Kantürk Yiğit, G., & Oral, M. (2016). CUMHURİYETTEN GÜNÜMÜZE EKONOMİ POLİTİKALARI BAĞLAMINDA TÜRK DIŞ TİCARETİNİN GELİŞİMİ Turkish Foreign Trade Development in the Context of Economic Policies from The Foundation of Turkish Repub-lic to Today. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 21(35), 149174. https://doi.org/10.17295/dcd.23130.
    30. Öztürk, M. (2007). İç göçlerin İstanbul kent ve çalışma hayatına etkileri. Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 40(1), 85106.
    31. Para & Borsa. (2012). 1974 ve 1978 Petrol Krizleri ve Türkiye. https://www.paraborsa.net/i/1974ve1978petrolkrizleriveturkiye/
    32. Peker, Mümtaz ve diğerleri. 75 Yılda Köylerden Şehirlere. “Türkiye’de İç Göçün Değişen Yapısı”. 1999. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları.
    33. Ragin, Charles & Chirot, Daniel (2014). Immanuel Wallerstein’ın Dünya Sistemi: Tarih Olarak Siyaset ve Sosyoloji, Theda Skocpol (Ed.), Tarihsel Sosyoloji: Bloch’tan Wallerstein’e Görüşler ve Yöntemler (Çev. Ahmet Fethi), s. 305347.
    34. Şaylan, G. (1976). Günümüz Mülki Amirlik Sistemini Nitelendiren Bir Eğilim: Siyasal Yönetsel Yapı Bütünleşmesi. K. Fişek. (Ed.). Toplumsal İlişkileri Açısından Türkiye’de Mülki İdare Amirliği Sistem ve Sorunlar (ss. 3854). Ankara: Türk İdareciler Derneği Bilimsel Araştırma Dizisi: 1.
    35. Şen, M. (2014). Türkiye’de İç Göçlerin Neden ve Sonuç Kapsamında İncelenmesi. (2022). Çalışma ve Toplum, 4, 125.
    36. Şen, O., & Özveren, M. (2024). EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN YERLİ ÜRETİM İLE İLİŞKİSİ: 197578 SİLAH AMBARGOSU’NDAN CAATSA’YA BİR ÇIKARIM. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 79(1), 2760. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.956772.
    37. Turan, V., & Yıldırım, U. (2023). 1950’den Günümüze Dünyada İç Göç Hareketleri ve Kentleşme. Optimum Ekonomi Ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(1), 203224.
    38. Tütengil, C. O. (2008). Bölgesel az gelişme ve bölgelerarası dengesizlik sorunu. Istanbul Journal of Sociological Studies, 38, 57–68.
    39. Wallerstein, Immanuel, (1998), Jeopolitik ve Jeokültür, (çev. Mustafa ÖZEL), İstanbul: İz Yayınları.
    40. Wallerstein, E. (2004), WorldSystems Analysis: An Introduction. Durhan & London: Duke University Press.
    41. Wallerstein, E. (2011), The Modern WorldSystem III: The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist WorldEconomy 17301840s. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520948594.
    42. Weissman, A. D. (2013), Pivotal PoliticsThe Marshall Plan: A Turning Point in Foreign Aid and the Struggle for Democracy. The History Teacher, 47(1), s. 111129.
    43. Wittner, L. S. (1980), The Truman Doctrine and the Defense of Freedom. Diplomatic History, 4(2), s. 161187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.1980.tb00342.x.
    44. Yılmaz, A. (2023). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti ve Sovyetler Birliği ekonomik ilişkileri, International Journal of Economics, Politics, Humanities & Social Sciences, Special Issue: 100 Years of Republic, 116, https://doi.org/10.59445/ijephss.1340288.
    45. Zürcher, E. J. (2000). Modernleşen Türkiye’nin tarihi (Çev: Gönen, Y. S.). İletişim Yay. İstanbul.
    46. Altınordu, A. (2017). A Midsummer Night’s Coup: Performance and Power in Turkey’s July 15 Coup Attempt. Qualitative Sociology, 40(2), 139–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-017-9354-y.
    47. Andersson, J., & Molinder, J. (2024). Did Cities Increase Skills During Industrialization? Evidence from RuralUrban Migration. Uppsala Papers in Economic History, 3. https://doi.org/10.33063/upeh.v3i.578.
    48. Bhambra, G. K. (2020). Colonial global economy: towards a theoretical reorientation of political economy. Review of International Political Econ-omy, 28(2), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2020.1830831.
    49. Çeçen, A. A., Doğruel, A. S., & Doğruel, F. (1994). Economic Growth and Structural Change in Turkey 1960–88. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 26(1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800059754.
    50. Chowdhury, A., & Żuk, P. (2018). From crisis to crisis: Capitalism, chaos and constant unpredictability. The Economic and Labour Relations Re-view, 29(4), 375–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304618811263.
    51. Kirişçi, K. (2009). The transformation of Turkish foreign policy: The rise of the trading state. New Perspectives on Turkey, 40, 29–56. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0896634600005203.
    52. Labelle, M. C. (2023). Energy as a weapon of war: Lessons from 50 years of energy interdependence. Global Policy, 14(3), 531–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.13235.
    53. MuftulerBac, M. (2021). Externalization of migration governance, Turkey’s migration regime, and the protection of the European Union’s external borders. Turkish Studies, aheadofprint(aheadofprint), 290–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2021.1943661.
    54. Novo, A. R. (2013). The God Dilemma: Faith, the Church, and Political Violence in Cyprus. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 31(2), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1353/mgs.2013.0019.
    55. Pejčić, J., Sekulić, A., & Glavaški, O. (2024). Stagflatorni pritisci u uslovima globalnih ekonomskih šokova. Anali Ekonomskog Fakulteta u Subotici, 52, 59–75. https://doi.org/10.5937/AnEkSub2400004P.
    56. Saaida, M. (2024). BRICS Plus: dedollarization and global power shifts in new economic landscape. BRICS Journal of Economics, 5(1), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.3897/brics-econ.5.e117828.
    57. Sarotte, M. E. (2010). Perpetuating U.S. Preeminence: The 1990 Deals to “Bribe the Soviets Out” and Move NATO In. International Security, 35(1), 110–137. https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00005.
    58. ScottSamuel, A., Bambra, C., Smith, K., Hunter, D. J., Collins, C., & Mccartney, G. (2014). The impact of Thatcherism on health and wellbeing in Britain. International Journal of Health Services, 44(1), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.44.1.d.
    59. Talmon, S. (2001). The Cyprus Question before the European Court of Justice. European Journal of International Law, 12(4), 727–750. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/12.4.727.
    60. Weber, S. (1992). Shaping the postwar balance of power: multilateralism in NATO. International Organization, 46(3), 633–680. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300027855.
    61. Wright, K. A. M., & Rosamond, A. B. (2024). Sweden, NATO and the gendered silencing of feminist foreign policy. International Affairs, 100(2), 589–607. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae002.
    62. Borodina, O. A., & Lyashenko, V. I. (2022). Post-War Economic Recovery: World Experience and Attempt to Adapt it for Ukraine. Herald of the Economic Sciences of Ukraine, 1(42), 121–134. https://doi.org/10.37405/1729-7206.2022.1(42).121-134.
    63. George, J., & Sandler, T. (2022). NATO defense demand, free riding, and the Russo-Ukrainian war in 2022. Journal of Industrial and Business Economics, 49(4), 783–806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40812-022-00228-y.
    64. Jackson, K., & Shepotylo, O. (2024). Political alliances and trade: Europe in a polarized world. European Journal of Political Economy, 85, 102612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2024.102612.
    65. Khalid, W., Civcir, I., & Özdeşer, H. (2024). Asymmetric effects of exchange rate volatility on Turkish-German commodity trade. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 34(5), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2024.2356780.
    66. Marta, J., Fauzi, A., Juanda, B., & Rustiadi, E. (2020). Understanding migration motives and its impact on household welfare: evidence from rural–urban migration in Indonesia. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 7(1), 118–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2020.1746194.
    67. Mehmetcik, H., & Çelik, A. C. (2021). The Militarization of Turkish Foreign Policy. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 24(1), 24–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2021.1992190.
    68. Qiu, T., Luo, B., Choy, S. T. B., Li, Y., & Li, J. (2021). Farmers’ Exit from Land Operation in Rural China: Does the Price of Agricultural Mecha-nization Services Matter? China & World Economy, 29(2), 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12372.
    69. Raihan, A., & Tuspekova, A. (2022). Dynamic impacts of economic growth, renewable energy use, urbanization, industrialization, tourism, agricul-ture, and forests on carbon emissions in Turkey. Carbon Research, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-022-00019-z.
    70. Sun, J., Chen, S., & Tian, M. (2024). Retain in the City, Return Flow, or Blind Direction: A Study on the Differentiation Mechanism of Migrant Workers’ Migration Willingness under the Background of China’s Strategy for Integrated Urban–Rural Development. Sustainability, 16(19), 8304. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198304.
    71. Wang, Z., & Chen, L. (2019). Destination choices of Chinese rural–urban migrant workers: Jobs, amenities, and local spillovers. Journal of Regional Science, 59(3), 586–609. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12444.
    72. Youssef, M., & Mokni, K. (2019). Do Crude Oil Prices Drive the Relationship between Stock Markets of Oil-Importing and Oil-Exporting Coun-tries? Economies, 7(3), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies7030070.
    73. Zou, B., & Mishra, A. K. (2024). Modernizing smallholder agriculture and achieving food security: An exploration in machinery services and labor reallocation in China. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 46(4), 1662–1691. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13433.

  • Downloads

  • How to Cite

    Celiktas, M. H. ., Özveren, M., balcioglu, yavuz S. ., & Bayraktar, U. (2025). Agricultural Modernization and Internal Migration in ‎Turkey, 1950-1980: A World Systems Analysis of ‎International Policy Interventions. International Journal of Accounting and Economics Studies, 12(8), 352-366. https://doi.org/10.14419/afd0d021