It Gets Better: A Content Analysis of Health Behavior Theory in Anti-Bullying YouTube Videos
Abstract
Bullying is a pervasive problem that affects children and adolescents of all backgrounds. Public Service Announcements (PSAs) spread through social media present a unique opportunity to reach many young people and teach skills for dealing with bullying. The purpose of this paper is to examine health behavior theory content of anti-bullying YouTube PSAs, and other YouTube videos containing anti-bullying messages. This study design comprised a content analysis for health behavior theory of anti-bullying YouTube videos. Videos were selected from www.YouTube.com using specific search terms typed into the search tool bar. Three graduate students trained in health behavior theory coded the videos. Results demonstrate that most anti-bullying YouTube videos do not incorporate health behavior theoretical constructs. Videos containing links to other websites were found to have greater inclusion of health behavior theory constructs. Theory was also positively associated with the number of views (p < .05). This paper represents the first in-depth content analysis for health behavior theoretical constructs in YouTube videos targeting bullying PSAs. Organizations should incorporate health behavior theories when developing PSAs to maximize behavioral impact, and to achieve high viewership. Overall anti-bullying videos on YouTube are ineffective in both utilizing theory and garnering views.
About this article
References
C.R. Cook, et al., Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation, School Psychology Quarterly 25:2 (2010) 65-83.
T.R. Nansel, et al., Bullying behaviors among US youth, JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association 285:16 (2001) 2094.
M.E. Solberg, D. Olweus, Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire, Aggressive Behavior 29:3 (2003) 239-268.
A.G. Carney, K.W. Merrell, Bullying in schools: Perspectives on understanding and preventing an international problem, School Psychology International 22:3 (2001) 364-382.
B. Houbre, et al., Bullying among students and its consequences on health, European Journal of Psychology of Education 21:2 (2006) 183-208.
View more references (42)
K. Kumpulainen, et al., Bullying and psychiatric symptoms among elementary school-age children, Child Abuse & Neglect 22:7 (1998) 705-717.
W.M. Craig, D.J. Pepler, Identifying and targeting risk for involvement in bullying and victimization, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48:9 (2003) 577.
P.R. Smokowski, K.H. Kopasz, Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, family characteristics, and intervention strategies, Children & Schools 27:2 (2005) 101-110.
J.A.J. Barbero, B.L.E. Hernandez, G. M.P, Effectiveness of anti-bullying school programmes: A systematic review by evidence levels, Children and Youth Services Review 34 (2012) 1646-1658.
D. Olweus, S.P. Limber, Bullying in school: Evaluation and dissemination of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 80:1 (2010) 124-134.
A. Frisen, K. Holmqvist, Adolescents’ own suggestions for bullying interventions at age 13 and 16, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 51:2 (2010) 123-131.
J. Jenson, W. Dieterich, Effects of a skills-based prevention program on bullying and bully victimization among elementary school children, Prevention Science 8:4 (2007) 285-296.
K.S. Frey, et al., Reducing playground bullying and supporting beliefs: An experimental trial of the steps to respect program, Developmental Psychology 41:3 (2005) 479-490.
J.D. Hawkins, et al., Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood, Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 153 (1999) 226-234.
A. Muller, Virtual communities and translation into physical reality in the 'It Gets Better' project. Journal of Media Practice 12:3 (2011) 269-277.
Entertainment Close - Up. Lady Gaga, The Trevor Project and the It Gets Better Project Join Mediaplanet in 'Speak Out' Campaign. Revised 2011. Accessed November 2012.
D.E. Apollonio, and R.E. Malone, Turning negative into positive: public health mass media campaigns and negative advertising, Health Education Research 24:3 (2009) 483-495.
W. Randolph, K. Viswanath, Lessons learned from public health mass media campaigns: Marketing health in a crowded media world, Annual Review of Public Health 25:1 (2004) 419-437.
J.E. Leavy, et al., Physical activity mass media campaigns and their evaluation: A systematic review of the literature 2003–2010, Health Education Research 26:6 (2011) 1060-1085.
C. Pechmann, E.T. Reibling, Anti-smoking advertising campaigns targeting youth: Case studies from USA and Canada, Tobacco Control 9:2 (2000) 18-31.
B. Freeman, S. Chapman, Gone viral? Heard the buzz? A guide for public health practitioners and researchers on how Web 2.0 can subvert advertising restrictions and spread health information, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 62:9 (2008) 778-782.
J.M. Kapp, et al., Updating public health teaching methods in the era of social media, Public Health Reports 124:6 (2009) 775-777.
R.D. Waters, P.M. Jones, Using video to build an organization's identity and brand: A content analysis of nonprofit organizations' YouTube videos, Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing 23:3 (2011) 248-268.
A. Doshi, et al., Evaluation of physical activity web sites for use of behavior change theories, Annals of Behavioral Medicine 25:2 (2003) 105.
L.T. Cowan, et al., Apps of steel: Are exercise apps providing consumers with realistic expectations? A content analysis of exercise apps for presence of behavior change theory, Health Education & Behavior (2012).
J.H. West, et al., There’s an app for that: Content analysis of paid health and fitness apps, Journal of Medical Internet Research 14:3 (2012).
J.H. Yoo, J. Kim, Obesity in the new media: A content analysis of obesity videos on YouTube, Health Communication 27:1 (2012) 86-97.
H.J. Paek, K. Kim, T. Hove, Content analysis of antismoking videos on YouTube: Message sensation value, message appeals, and their relationships with viewer responses, Health Education Research 25:6 (2010) 1085-1099.
K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, K. Viswanath, Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice. 4 ed, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 2008.
R. Landis, G. Koch, The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 33 (1977) 159-174.
M.J. Boulton, M. Trueman, I. Flemington, Associations between secondary school pupils' definitions of bullying, attitudes towards bullying, and tendencies to engage in bullying: Age and sex differences, Educational Studies 28:4 (2002) 353-370.
A. Frisén, K. Holmqvist, D. Oscarsson, 13-year-olds' perception of bullying: definitions, reasons for victimization and experience of adults' response, Educational Studies 34:2 (2008) 105-117.
J. Wang, R.J. Ianotti, J.W. Luk, Bullying victimization among underweight and overweight U.S. youth: Differential associations for boys and girls, Journal of Adolescent Health 47:1 (2010) 99-101.
M. Gerend, J. Shepherd, Predicting human papillomavirus vaccine uptake in young adult women: Comparing the health belief model and theory of planned behavior, Annals of Behavioral Medicine 44:2 (2012) 171-180.
R. Briones, et al., When vaccines go viral: An analysis of HPV vaccine coverage on YouTube, Health Communication 27:5 (2012) 478-485.
P. Singh, K. Bussey, Peer victimization and psychological maladjustment: The mediating role of coping self-efficacy, Journal of Research on Adolescence 21:2 (2011) 420-433.
V. Pöyhönen, J. Juvonen, C. Salmivalli, Standing up for the victim, siding with the bully or standing by? Bystander responses in bullying situations, Social Development 21:4 (2012) 722-741.
G. Gini, et al., Determinants of adolescents’ active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying, Journal of Adolescence 31:1 (2008) 93-105.
K.M. Fitzpatrick, et al., Depressive symptomatology, exposure to violence, and the role of social capital among African American adolescents, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75:2 (2005) 262-274.
A.D. Pelligrini, M. Bartini, School bullies, victims, and aggressive victims: Factors relating to group affiliation, Journal of Educational Psychology 91:2 (1999) 216.
A.D. Pellegrini, M. Bartini, A longitudinal study of bullying, victimization, and peer affiliation during the transition from primary school to middle school, American Educational Research Journal 37:3 (2000) 699-725.
E.V.E. Hodges, D.G. Perry, Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76:4 (1999) 677-685.
M.K. Demaray, C.K. Malecki, Perceptions of the frequency and importance of social support by students classified as victims, bullies, and bully/victims in an urban middle school, School Psychology Review 32:3 (2003) 471-489.
C. Salmivalli, A. Huttunen, K.M.J. Lagerspetz, Peer networks and bullying in schools, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 38:4 (1997) 305-312.
K. Rigby, Why do some children bully at school? The contributions of negative attitudes towards victims and the perceived expectations of friends, parents and teachers, School Psychology International 26:2 (2005) 147-161.
H.-J. Paek, et al., Peer or expert? The persuasive impact of YouTube public service announcement producers, International Journal of Advertising 30:1 (2011) 161.
P. Haridakis, G. Hanson, Social interaction and co-viewing with YouTube: Blending mass communication reception and social connection, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 53:2 (2009) 317-335.